Along with the theoretical framework, presented is a Gender pay gap 5:22. doi: 10.3389/fsoc.2020.00022. Less is sometimes more: consequences of overpayment on job satisfaction and absenteeism. Thus, people in Germany experience remarkable gender inequality in pay over the life course when they participate in the labor market. Gender pay gap in U.S. hasnt changed much in two decades The empirical analyses, therefore, draw on a sample of social sciences students and two population samples. Equation (5) includes in addition to the gender of the vignette person (genderv) and the other dimensions, the gender of the respondent (genderr) and a cross-level interaction term. Table 7. SOEPpaper No. Thus, it is possible to investigate justice evaluations of people embedded in differing gender inequality structures. Accounting for the sources of the level and changes in the gender pay gap will provide guidance for understanding recent research studying gender and the labor market. Am. According to the mixed results of prior studies, university students who experience more gender equality will more likely activate a referential structure that does not produce gender bias, while members of the general population are more likely to experience gender inequalities over their life courses and reproduce them in their evaluations. Conflict Theory doi: 10.1177/0003122416683393. The Gender Wage Gap: Causes, Consequences, and With these pieces of information, it was possible to find those interviews that did not fulfill the requirements for the analysis: interviews were excluded from the analysis sample if respondents did not perform the task on their own but with the help of others. Psychol. Technical report, TNS Infratest Sozialforschung, Mnchen. The factorial survey approach: an introduction, in Measuring social Judgements: the Factorial Survey Approach, Measuring Social Judgments: The Factorial Survey Approach, eds P. Rossi and S. L. Nock (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage), 1567. Intersectionality - The Feminist Perspective, 29. doi: 10.1002/hec.1197, PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar. These designs ensure that the influence of vignette dimensions and interaction terms are mutually uncorrelated. In 2022, women earned an average of 82% of what men earned, according to a new Pew Research Center analysis of median hourly earnings of both full- and part-time workers. The university student survey (hereafter the student sample) was conducted during the summer term in 2008. This study focuses on the relevance and weight of gender in justice evaluations; thus, predictions about reward-relevant characteristics are required2. A subsequent experimental study, concerning a promotion to a time-intensive position with an online sample of parents, revealed that women reported lower aspirations for this type of promotion compared to men when the position was characterized as inflexible, but the gap disappeared when the position offered temporal flexibility. HUM210 - Introduction to Women and Gender Studies - Course Goal, Description, Learning Topics & Outcomes, 2. As well as looking at basic differences in pay, the research identifies the characteristics that explain those differences such as age, occupation and level of education. Due to a life course perspective, gender differences in income are analyzed over a period of 24 years. Further notes on the theory of distributive justice. This procedure ensures that potential method effects such as learning and fatigue (Sauer et al., 2011) are uncorrelated with substantive contents of the vignettes. When sociologists examine gender from this perspective, they typically classify men as the dominant group and women as the subordinate group. Despite the changes we have already made in the world, we have not completely solve the problem of gender stratification. First, all interviews in the SOEP-Pretest are programmed as computer-assisted personal interviews, in contrast to the paper and pencil questionnaires mostly used in the main survey. Structural aspects of distributive justice: a status value formulation, in Sociological Theories in Progress, Vol. Jasso, G., and Webster, M. (1997). doi: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2018.10.013. Gender Pay Gap - Sociology - Oxford Bibliographies - obo This indicates that respondents reward seniority and potential work experience. This possibility was introduced in the description of the vignette task immediately before the first vignette. Figure 1. The results show that social sciences students revealed no gender bias in their evaluations. Gender theory and theorizing universities as gendered organizations provides the theoretical framework of the study. Gender inequalitiesrefer to absolute differences in the treatment and outcomes for men versus women (e.g., the % of CEOS that are men vs. women), that may or may not be deserved.1Gender inequitiesspecifically refer to differences in the treatment and outcomes for men versus women that are undeserved given their merits or contributions The Gender Wage Gap: Extent, Trends, and Explanations Competition, Meritocracy, and Pay and Tenure Outcomes). doi: 10.18723/diw_wb:2020-10-3, Alves, W. M., and Rossi, P. H. (1978). In all Western countries, levels of pay between men and women are only slowly becoming closer (Blau and Kahn, 2003, 2006). The factorial survey is a survey experiment that presents the respondents brief descriptions of persons or situations that consist of dimensions (e.g., gender, occupation, education) that vary experimentally in their levels. Res. The contribution of this paper is to apply the theoretical explanations offered by Berger et al. College Station, TX: Stata Press. Women and Negotiation: Narrowing the Gender Gap Front. Ganzeboom, H. B. G., and Treiman, D. J. Conflict theory suggests that men, as the dominant gender, subordinate women in order to maintain power and privilege in society. 51, 123143. Under the structural condition of gender inequality, it is likely that gender has status value. - Argument in Support of Social Constructionism, 11. Under the assumption of biased referential structures, it can be predicted under which structural conditions gender is likely to be a status characteristic and thereby a relevant factor in the justice evaluation process formulated in Equation (3). Usually, the official statistics reporting the unadjusted gender pay gap use the arithmetic mean or the median of hourly or monthly wages of men and women. Eine Ursachenanalyse auf Grundlage der Verdienststrukturerhebung 2014, in Wirtschaft und Statistik 2/2017, 4362. The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The third model in Table 6 provides the coefficients for population sample 2. Sociol. Gender pay gap - Wikipedia Auspurg, K., Hinz, T., and Sauer, C. (2017). Population sample 2 was embedded in a large pretest, and it was not possible to randomize the order of the vignettes per person; thus, method effects regarding vignette order and substantive effects are not distinguishable. Empirically, this is the first study that compares student samples and population samples using similar tools to detect gender biases that allow for the testing of differences for the first time. The gap exists as a universal between the genders, and it exists within the vast majority of occupations. Table 2. Students evaluated the justice of earnings of the vignette persons without a focus on whether the described person was male or female. 83, 13981419. The interaction effect is significantly negative, meaning that the rating behavior of male and female students differed with respect to the gender of the vignette person. Just gender pay gap in percent (with 95% CIs) by sample and respondents' gender. The rewards of the generalized other represent the typical earnings of similar people, while the normative evaluation of whether earnings are too high or too low is located in the comparison between the actual outcomes and the referential outcomes. The lowest pay gap in 2009 for full-time employed people was measured in Saxony-Anhalt at 1 percent. However, their main arena of daily interactions in which status hierarchies emerge and spread is likely to be within the university with other students. Positive values indicate a gap favoring male vignette persons and negative values indicate a gap favoring female vignette persons. While certaingender rolesmay have been appropriate in ahunter-gatherersociety, conflict theorists argue that the only reason these roles persist is because the dominant group naturally works to maintain their power andstatus. HUM210 Introduction to Women and Gender Studies, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, Conflicttheoryasserts that social problems occur whendominant. Distributive justice theories share the basic idea that similar individuals, based on socially defined and valued characteristics, expect similar rewards or earnings. The article is reproduced here with the permission of The Irish Times and of the author Professor William Reville, 12. If they rated the income as unjust, respondents judged in a second step whether the income was too high or too low. The factorial survey method and application for studying attitudes and behavior. One could argue that the actual gender pay gaps are especially salient for respondents who are actively participating in the labor market. Kevin J. Mitchell, Ph.D., "Sex on the Brain" published by Aeon Magazine, https://aeon.co/essays/the-gender-wars-will-end-only-with-a-synthesis-of-research, 10. WebThere is Functionalism, this plays a part because different parts, there are political influences and government role in wage determination. The factorial survey as a method for measuring sensitive issues, in Improving Survey Methods: Lessons From Recent Research, eds U. Engel, B. Jann, P. Lynn, A. Scherpenzeel, and P. Sturgis (New York, NY: Routledge), 137149. Moreover, the student sample used in this study revealed no gender differences in study success (meanm = 1.26; meanf = 1.15; T = 1.27; p = 0.20; nm = 697;nf = 998) measured via self-assessment on an eleven-point rating scale (5 to +5). Sociol. Sipe, S., Johnson, C. D., and Fisher, D. K. (2009). Distributions of justice evaluations by sample. To investigate how structural differences shape justice perceptions, the following analyses focus on the two population samples. Valet, P. (2018). Read the following thought experiment from Philippa Foot and then answers the questions that follow: "Let us consider [] a pair of cases which I shall call Rescue I and Rescue II. doi: 10.1111/j.0735-2751.2004.00227.x, Younts, C. W., and Mueller, C. W. (2001). Sci. 28, 415434. The data collection method used here is a factorial survey design (Rossi and Anderson, 1982; Jasso, 2006), in which respondents evaluated so-called vignettes that described persons varying in multiple characteristics, including gender and gross earnings. Figure 3 shows the transformed b-coefficients of the regression models with the 95% confidence bars for each sample by gender. (2015)], especially in the case of justice evaluations of earnings (Gatskova, 2013; Auspurg et al., 2017). Although only a share of respondents participate in the labor market, these status differences are shared beliefs in wide parts of society because they have spread throughout the population. As factorial survey studies go beyond standard questionnaires, the requirement in the computer-assisted personal interviewing version was to use experienced interviewers. The legitimization of gender differences due to biased referential structures could be one reason for the slow reduction in the actual pay gap. Res. The interaction effect in Model 4 is insignificant, meaning that male and female respondents both produced to the same extent a just gender pay gap favoring male recipients in their evaluations. J. However, with the current formulation of the workplace policies and regulation, both the, gender is being paid based on the ability and merit to deliver and perform (. Berger, J., Fisek, H. M., Norman, R. Z., and Wagner, D. G. (1985). Gender differences in experimental wage negotiations. In other words, women in this age group earned $0.89 for every dollar 62, 367380. You can help correct errors and omissions. The 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated using the Delta method (Hole, 2007). 25 Jahre Sozio-oekonomisches Panel - ein Infrastrukturprojekt der empirischen Sozial- und Wirtschaftsforschung in Deutschland. Gender pay gap The gap stems from prejudice against women workers, resulting in women receiving less pay than men do for the same work. Figure 2 shows the distributions of justice evaluations by dataset. Model 1 shows that the effect of respondents' gender on the justice evaluations is significantly negative, meaning that male students evaluated, on average, the vignettes as more unjustly low than female students. This high-status group preference is shared by both the advantaged and disadvantaged groups, and accordingly, both male and female observers assign higher earnings to male recipients. Thus, status characteristics that refer to categorical differences, abilities or inputs are relevant for the observer to estimate the just earnings C of a recipient. Frederich Engels compared thefamilystructureto therelationshipbetween thebourgeoisieand theproletariat, suggesting that women had less power than men in the household because they were dependent on them for wages. These findings are in line with the results of earlier studies (e.g., Jasso and Rossi, 1977; Alves and Rossi, 1978; Jasso and Meyersson Milgrom, 2008; Gatskova, 2013). The negative coefficient indicates that male recipients were more often evaluated as under-rewarded than female recipients. 5. Res. Lang, V., and Gro, M. (2020). Thus, there exist remarkable differences between federal states with the strongest divide between federal states located in the eastern and western parts of Germany. ^The combination of these factors addresses interactions between gender and other characteristics, e.g., experience or education. The study assumed that actual gender inequalities lead to biased referential structures that typically associate men with higher earnings. Second, one needs an instrument that allows for the analysis of gender bias. A second version of this paper has been part of my dissertation (Sauer, 2014b) and is available online as a discussion paper (Sauer, 2014a). 144, 198222. I acknowledge funding from the German Research Foundation (grant number: HI 680-4-1) and the Dutch Research Foundation (grant number: 4510-17-024). The third model shows the coefficients of the three-way interaction with respondent's gender for male (2 = 6.17;p = 0.013) and female (2 = 3.60;p = 0.058) respondents separately. doi: 10.2307/2095476. The gender pay gap in a federal state did not directly affect the justice evaluations. Methods Res. These vignette-based justice evaluations can be used to measure the independent impacts of the recipient's gender and other characteristics on the justice evaluations of observers. Soc. 4. Available online at: https://pub.uni-bielefeld.de/record/2691510 (accessed June 25, 2019). The status value attached to male recipients reproduces gender inequalities in justice judgments of men and women. Additionally, on 2 days, training courses were provided by the researchers to show the interviewers how the respondents had to rate the vignette task and how the interviewers had to behave as the respondents rated the vignettes and how to react in the case of questions. Therefor, they will recruit enough women so no one can claim gender discrimination, but in the end, male is their preference. Male and female observers assigned higher just earnings to male recipients. In sum, age, education, occupation, and the associated earnings provided information on the recipients that all respondents used in their justice evaluation. 26, 132150. (1996). There exist large regional differences in gender pay gaps across federal states. University of Maryland, University College, Sociological Research on Gender Pay Gap.docx, Social Problems Of Poverty and Inequality.edited.docx, Assignment 2 - Sociological Imagination and the Future of Work/Education. How did we get here? Thus, actors who experience gender inequality are more likely to activate a gender-biased referential structure in justice evaluations and therefore (unconsciously) perceive gender differences as legitimate. Assessing the gender gap in just earnings and its underlying mechanisms. (OECD). Gender inequality and bargaining in the WebThis research report explores the gender pay gap, which is defined as the difference between the average hourly pay of men and women. First, respondents had to judge whether the earnings of a worker were just or unjust. As one can tell the two sides of the matter are whether or not women deserve the pay. Respondents living in federal states with high actual gender pay gaps produced a larger bias favoring men. In Germany, the gender differences in earnings have remained persistently high over the last decade (Hobler and Pfahl, 2019) in comparison to other European countries. The sampling procedure followed two steps: after sampling the vignettes, they were allocated to different decks (Jasso, 2006) that were randomly assigned to questionnaires that the respondents had to complete. WebIn 2019, men made a median of $57,456, while women made a median of $47,299a wage gap of 18%. Rev. (2008). Multiple linear regression of justice evaluations of vignettes on vignette dimensions by sample. Web79Conflict Theory Conflict theory looks at conflict and power. WebSince women are starkly overrepresented in low paid work, it would usually benefit women more dramatically. The questionnaire consisted of the factorial survey module and additional questions on attitudes (after the factorial survey module) and questions on the socio-demographic background. Conflict Theory Having men and women share equal footing on these boards will mitigate the concepts of superiority and inferiority., The effects of the pay gap are overwhelmingly negative. 7, 227244. Argument that Gender is Not a Social Construct, This article was first published in The Irish Times on 04/04/2013. Reward expectations are formed based on status characteristics and a referential structure. Within Germany, the gender pay gap varies remarkably at the regional level. This gap causes men to believe they are superior to women, it perpetuates the stereotype that men are better than women, it objectifies all women, and leads further to the discrimination of all people. Sociol. Copyright 2020 Sauer. The respondents were randomly assigned to experimental splits. Thus, the direction and size of a just gender pay gap depends on actual inequalities people experience in their daily lives. They are not looked at the same way nor are people praising them for how successful they will become., Introductory Paragraph The analysis sample was restricted to those respondents who were full-time employed because gender pay gaps were available only for full-time employees, so they directly experienced the difference in their daily interactions. The subjective gender bias in evaluations of earnings describes complementary differences in justice evaluations of men and women. doi: 10.1086/344125, Blau, F. D., and Kahn, L. M. (2006). 50, 822839. Therefore, this context variable is useful to compare how the gender of the recipient influences justice evaluations of observers living in different federal states. Internationally comparable measures of occupational status for the 1988 international standard classification of occupations. Sociol. (28, Conley). Moreover, it shows again high consistency of evaluations of the population samples. Observers (do not) produce a just gender pay gap with their ratings. ^The models were estimated with the statistical software Stata 13.1 (StataCorp, 2011). Res. To test this underlying assumption, longitudinal data would be useful to separate changes in justice attitudes with respect to gender from differences between observers. Frank, T., and Grimm, C. (2010). doi: 10.1016/j.postcomstud.2013.03.007, Hobler, D., and Pfahl, S. (2019). Cameron, A. C., and Trivedi, P. K. (2009). Models 5 and 6 show the coefficients for population sample 2. In the negotiation literature, it can be seen that a systematic gender bias is inherent (Dittrich et al., 2014; Kugler et al., 2018), partly because both negotiation parties likely exhibit a double standard for men and women. Stud. Women learned from their mothers to be subservient to their husbands, fathers, brothers, and sons and men learned from their mothers and fathers that their wives, mothers, sisters, and daughters must be subservient to them. Res. The actuality is that our society wants to gender inequality. (2009). Three factorial survey studies on justice evaluations of earnings for male an female employees, in SFB 882 Working Paper Series 29. Due the end of week 7. WebThe conflict theory states the idea that conflict between competing interests is the basic, animating force of social change and society in general. According to conflict theory,societyis defined by a struggle for dominance amongsocial groupsthat compete for scarce resources. Acta Sociol. Conflict theorists do not believe that public schools reduce social inequality through providing equal opportunity. Kuhfeld, W. F. (2005). But this wasnt due to women earning more. doi: 10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.21. The feminist and conflict theory apply to the gender wage gap by the feminist stating that men and women should have equal rights. Table 4. (2015)]. Written informed consent for participation was not required for this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements. Conflict between the two groups caused things like the WomensSuffrageMovement and was responsible forsocial change. Gender differences in the initiation of negotiations: a meta-analysis. doi: 10.1037/bul0000135. Auspurg, K., Hinz, T., Liebig, S., and Sauer, C. (2015). The analysis sample consists of 952 respondents. Gender Wage Inequality And Conflict Theory - 1144 According to the respondents, the vignette persons who have a higher level of formal education should gain higher returns from their work (educational reward). (2017) with a different approach and focus. Restricting the results presented in Tables 6, 7 to full-time employees yields similar results (as can also be seen in Models 1 and 4 of Table 8). Figure 1 shows the long-run trends in the gender pay gap over the 1955-2014 period based on two Population sample 2 used a three-stage rating task. - Argues Time to Move Beyond "Gender Is Socially Constructed", Michael Mascolo Ph.D. , https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/old-school-parenting-modern-day-families/201907/time-move-beyond-gender-is-socially-constructed, 13. Soc. The graph highlights the different evaluation patterns between participants of the student sample and those of the two population samples. Theoretical Perspectives on Gender Introduction to Please provide multiple citations in your sources. Jann, B. Sci. SOEP Testerhebung 2008: Persnlichkeit, Gerechtigkeitsempfinden und Alltagsstimmung. Mobil. DFG Research Center (SFB) 882 From Heterogeneities to Inequalities (Bielefeld University). I argue that the gender bias in justice evaluations of earnings is an experience-based bias that mirrors the gender inequality of the structural context in which individuals are mainly embedded. 2, Chap. This can be written in a formal equation as follows: The term C in Equation (1) is now replaced by characteristics that might be relevant for the justice evaluation, including gender. The program of the annual SOEP questionnaire for the following wave is pretested in each summer of the preceding year. Inq. Rev. Gender Pay Gap Compared to white, non-Hispanic men, the pay gap for Black women was 38% and 46% for Latinas. This was due to womens dependence on men for the attainment of wages. Understanding international differences in the gender pay gap. Additional analyses with all respondentsnot restricted to employed respondentssimilar to those presented in Table 8 revealed mixed results. 45, 168193. Rev. Rev. Finally, the influence of gender inequality on justice evaluations was tested via regional pay gaps in Table 8. Quick Facts About the Gender Wage Gap - Center for However, the specification leaves exogenous the substantive content of the just reward function (Jasso, 1980). Distributive justice and CEO compensation. This reflects differing referential structures with higher referential earnings of observers from high-income federal states. 51, 3046. Evaluators perceive justice if this condition is met, and they perceive injustice (either over-reward or under-reward) if this condition is not met because expectations are violated. StataCorp (2011). Siegel, N. A., Stocker, A., and Warnholz, S. (2009). The respondents of both population samples produced a just gender pay gap favoring male recipients. Health Econ. Labor Relat.
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